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China has a long history of wine production. Chinese literature recounts the introduction of grapes from modern Uzbekistan during the Han dynasty (136 to 121 BC) and their planting in Xi'an, the legendary eastern terminus of the Silk Road near China's Yellow River.
The Modern Era
The modern wine era in China began with the communist takeover in 1949. State-owned wineries were built and expanded. The term wine traditionally has a different meaning in Chinese culture than in the west. Jiu, which literally means alcohol, was used on all labels until recently, not allowing for the distinction among, alcoholic beverages. Rice-based alcohol is also referred to as wine. Modern Chinese winemakers now make an effort to specify grape wine by labeling with the term butajiu. The term wine is still widely misunderstood in China.
In 1978, Chinese government opened the door for the modernization through international involvement and by emphasizing wine consumption to help curb the national thirst for alcoholic beverages. Indeed, the Communist Party decreed that consumption should change from grain liquor to fruit liquor in 1987. The 1990s saw a decline in state-owned wineries, but an increase in foreign investment, modernization, and western technology.
The Current Scenario
More then 100 wineries have been established since the National People's Congress in 1966 decreed that Chinese must reduce their consumption of grain alcohol, and switch to wine. Since then, the government has encouraged state-run 'wine manufacturing plants' to grow western grape varieties.
With a country as vast as China, a wide range of climates and soils is suitable to wine production. It has an Agricultural Research Station at Guangdong Province in Guangzhou, in China's southern Canton region. This semi-tropical zone does not concentrate on viticulture, but sericulture- the production of silk.
The Chinese Agricultural University in Beijing established the country's first PhD program in Enology and Viticulture in 2001. With extensive support from some of the major local producers like Great Wall Winery, this program is thriving. The university has a pilot winery and research facilities that are quite impressive. English competency is a requirement for the Chinese Agricultural University's Enology and Viticulture program since lack of English competency is a hurdle in learning the research work from western cultures.
The Domestic Wine Industry
China has more than 300 wineries. Most of this development has been in areas near Beijing, in the eastern maritime region of Shandong. The industry is dominated by six large producers who account for about 55% of the total production. The average capacity of Chinese wineries is approximately 2000 tons, with 70% of the producers under 1000 tons. The more predominant wineries include Changyu, Great Wall, Dynasty, and Dragon Seal, all producing over 10,000 tons. Wine production in China in 2005 was 434,000 tons, an increase of 14% from 2004.
Standards and Appellations
Some wineries still use flavor essence, ethyl alcohol, sweetening, agents, and water to produce wines. There have been attempts to establish standards like an AOC type appellation system. New standards and types are evolving, including premium wine and ice wine which is produced in the extremely cold Xinjiang region and is available in abundance in stores in most big cities. Regulations are being put into effect to control raw materials, regional identity, variety, and vintage.
Despite some opposition to geographic indicators as a means of wine classification, local branding has become a trend, with the expansion of some estate-branded wines. Great Wall Wines is leading the market in estate wines. Domestic producers are starting to change marketing strategies. Changyu Wines has established the first estate wine club in China. The Huadong Winery, established in Shandong Province in 1985 was one of the first wineries to attract attention. It was the first Chinese winery with a varietal label, and the first to put vintage on the bottle.
Vines and Viticulture
China has 26 indigenous vine species and hundreds of grape varieties. These are used to produce mainly low-end wines. Widespread introductions from Russia, including Muscat along with Italian Riesling, make acceptable, if not noteworthy products. Among the most common are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the mysterious Cabernet Gernischt.
Shandong Province is roughly at the same latitude as California. Cool Pacific breezes moderate the temperature, which ranges from about 3°C in winter to 26°C during the summer. Monsoons come from the South China Sea, although spring is usually dry, and summers and autumns wet.
China's parallel system of market-driven and controlled economy, along with very strong farmer traditions may limit the pace of change. Traditionally, all grape varieties (for wine and table) were grown in a fan-type trellis system with little canopy management. High humidity and excessive yield increases the fruit rot potential, which motivates growers to harvest immature fruit. Grapes are supplied by individual farmers who usually work less than an acre. Because of the abundance of cheap labor, all viticulture activities are performed manually.
Wine making in China is an interesting blend of the Old World and modern chateaux style crafting, often at the same facility. Naturally, with a diverse industry, there is a large variation in production practices. The important feature for most Chinese wineries is to keep production costs down for standard volume wines.
Most of the higher-end products are the result of either joint ventures (which may mean a consultant on economic linkage) with Europeans or South Americans, or French production practices and philosophy.
Winemaking Process
Virtually every winemaker harvests grapes based on sugar; measures of TA, pH. Aroma evaluation are not of common concern. Fermentation is conducted in modern stainless steel, concrete, French 200-L barrels, or in some cases very old wooden (oak) fermentors, with or without temperature control. Red wine cap management is not a large concern and consists almost entirely of pumping over. Practices such as cold soak, bleeding, and delestage are not practices and none of the producers is involved in the process maceration.
Great Wall Winery is a typical example. They ferment their premium reds to dryness, rack into Allier barrels for 12 months, and bottle aged for one year prior to release. White wine production is made by crush and press (sometimes in screw-type), usually settled, not always with refrigeration, without fining agents, racked, and fermented. Traditionally, fermentation did not occur in oak. Some Chardonnay producers are using oak fermentations.
The bigger wineries, as expected, have high-speed, modern bottling lines. However, virtually every winery uses low grade corks. As a result, shelf life is limited, which does not seem to be a large concern. Established Chinese wineries, such as Changyu, Great Wall, and Dynasty have found a home for the mid-level wines, principally in the eastern modern cities of China. Currently, quality and packaging are both constraints for sales in the West.
Dry Wines and food pairing
Dry wines have over taken sweet and semi-sweet wine production in the past 12 years. Sales of still red wines represent about 70 percent of the total. This seemed odd, since Chinese food does not go well with red wines. However, food and wine pairing, is not part of Chinese culture.
Red color represents happiness, good luck, strength, and power, while white is the color of death in Chinese culture. This, coupled with interest in health, may suggest reasons for the trend towards more red wine produced than white wines which are becoming popular in the cities of southern China, perhaps because of the abundance of fresh seafood in the regional diet.
Marketing a dream or nightmare
China can be considered both a western wine marketer's dream and nightmare. Wine consumption is rising faster than domestic production, currently allowing imports to make up the balance. Beginning January 1, 2001, Chinese tariffs on wine have fallen from 44.5% to 14%. This dramatic reform was brought on as part of China's accession to the WTO, and has substantially changed the domestic wine market. Given the traditionally low incomes, the majority of wines must be sold at low prices- a problem in light of the fact that taxes account for about 50% of the retail price of imported wine. Domestic wine can sell for about 20 RMB/L ($4), with the very expensive ones at about $20.
The government estimates that within eight years, China's population will be 1.4 billion, increasing at approximately 14 million per year. This represents a lot of potential wine drinkers. The Chinese do drink alcohol, but not much wine (per capital consumption is about 0.2L vs. 80L for the Italians, for example). With the country's growing affluence, trend of eating out, and some trends towards Western-type foods, increasing wine consumption will occur. The question is, by how much?
Rajiv Seth
 Rajiv Seth became the first Indian in the year 1987 to receive a gold medal from wine and sprint education trust, London. Presently he is making continues efforts in educating the lab assistants of a number of wineries on procedures of micro vinification through his manuals.
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